101 (2014) (Q-ans)

1.a. Ans = Guilds are defined as associations of craftsmen and merchants formed to promote the economic interests of their members as well as to provide protection and mutual aid.

C.Ans = The most influential Scholastic thinker was St. Thomas Aquinas, a 13th-century theologian and philosopher from Italy. His most famous work was Summa Theologica, which combined Christian theology and Aristotelian philosophy.

D.Ans= Hinduism is not an organized religion as it does not have systematically associated values or commandments. The beliefs of Hinduism are influenced by the local, regional, caste, or community-driven practices. Yet many beliefs can be common in all variations, these are the core beliefs.

E. Ans = William Langland
F. Ans = The book tells the story of some pilgrims who went to Canterbury together. On their journey from London, they each told a story – a tale. The pilgrims met at a house called the Tabard Inn in London.
G. Ans = 1798

2. a. Ans = vassal, in feudal society, one investedwith a fief in return for services to an overlord. Some vassals did not have fiefs and lived at their lord’s court as his household knights. Certain vassals who held their fiefs directly from the crown were tenants in chief and formed the most important feudal group, the barons. A fief held by tenants of these tenants in chief was called an arriere-fief, and, when the king summoned the whole feudal host, he was said to summon the ban et arriere-ban. There were female vassals as well; their husbands fulfilled their wives’ services.
Under the feudal contract, the lord had the duty to provide the fief for his vassal, to protect him, and to do him justice in his court. In return, the lord had the right to demand the services attached to the fief (military, judicial, administrative) and a right to various “incomes” known as feudal incidents. Examples of incidents are relief, a tax paid when a fief was transferred to an heir or alienated by the vassal, and scutage, a tax paid in lieu of military service. Arbitrary arrangements were gradually replaced by a system of fixed dues on occasions limited by custom.

The vassal owed fealty to his lord. A breach of this duty was a felony, regarded as so heinous an offense that in England all serious crimes, even those that had nothing to do with feudalism proper, came to be called felonies, since, in a way, they were breaches of the fealty owed to the king as guardian of the public peace and order.

The vassals’ rights over the fiefs grew larger and larger in course of time, and soon fiefs became hereditary in the sense that investiture could not be withheld from an heir who was willing to do homage. The rules of inheritance tended to safeguard an undivided fief and preferred the eldest among the sons (primogeniture). This principle was far from absolute; under pressure from younger sons, parts of an inheritance might be set apart for them in compensation (see appanage). Vassalsalso acquired the right to alienate their fiefs, with the proviso, first, of the lord’s consent and, later, on payment of a certain tax. Similarly, they obtained the right to subinfeudate—that is, to become lords themselves by granting parts of their fiefs to vassals of their own. If a vassal died without heir or committed a felony, his fief went back to the lord.

b.Ans= Feudalism was a system in which people were given land and protection by people of higher rank, and worked and fought for them in return. The basic idea of feudalism was that it was a system for structuring society around relationships derived from the holding of land in return for services. It is a the political, military, and social system in medieval Europe, based on the holding of lands in fief or fee and on the resulting relations between lord and vassal.
       Feudalism was the system in 10th-13th century European medieval societies where a social hierarchy was established based on local administrative control and the distribution of land into units (fiefs). A landowner (lord) gave a fief, along with a promise of military and legal protection, in return for a payment of some kind from the person who received it (vassal).

The payment of the vassal to the lord typically came in the form of feudal service which could mean military service or the regular payment of produce or money. Both lord and vassal were freemen and the term feudalism is not generally applied to the relationship between the unfree peasantry (serfs or villeins) and the person of higher social rank on whose land they laboured
     a feudal system, a peasant or worker known as a vassal received a piece of land in return for serving a lord or king, especially during times of war. Vassals were expected to perform various duties in exchange for their own fiefs, or areas of land.

C.Ans = Renaissance in Florence: Filippo Brunelleschi (1377-1446)

Sandro Boticelli (1445-1510)

The Famous Renaissance Artist Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)

Michelangelo (1475-1564)

Titian (1488-1576)

Giorgio Vasari (1511-1574)

El Greco (1541-1614)

Who were the famous painters of the Renaissance?

Leonardo da Vinci
Michelang...
Raphael
Donatello
Sandro Botticelli
Filippo Brunellesc...
Caravaggio
Titian
         
In addition to its expression of classical Greco-Roman traditions, Renaissance art sought to capture the experience of the individual and the beauty and mystery of the natural world.

D.Ans= His most important juridical works are:The Elements of the Common Laws of England, Maxims of the Law, Cases of Treason and the Learned Reading of Sir Francis Bacon upon the Statute of Uses.

E. Ans= A periodical essay is an essay (that is, a short work of nonfiction) published in a magazine or journal--in particular, an essay that appears as part of a series.

The 18th century is considered the great age of the periodical essay in English. Notable periodical essayists of the 18th century include Joseph Addison, Richard Steele, Samuel Johnson, and Oliver Goldsmith.
       A periodical essay is a type of writing that is issued on a regular basis as a part of a series in editions such as journals, magazines, newspapers or comic books. It is typically published daily, weekly, monthly or quarterly and is referenced by volume and issue. Volume indicates the number of years when the publication took place while issue denotes how many times the periodical was issued during the year. For example, the May 1711 publication of a monthly journal that was first published in 1702 would be referred to as, “volume 10, issue 5”. At times, roman numerals were also used to indicate the volume number. For the citation of text in a periodical, such a format as The Chicago Manual of Style is used. ORDER NOWSEE PRICES The periodical essay appeared in the early 1700s and reached its highest popularity in the middle of the eighteenth century. London magazines such as The Tatler and The Spectator were the most popular and influential periodicals of that time. It is considered that The Tatler introduced such literary genre as periodical essay while The Spectator improved it. The magazines remained influential even after they stopped publications. Their issues were later published in the form of a book, which was in demand for the rest of the century. Richard Steele and Joseph Addison are considered to be the figures who contributed the most to the development of the eighteen-century literary genre of periodical essays. They managed to create a winning team where Addison was more of an eloquent writer while Steele made his contribution by being an outstanding organizer and editor. Typically, the essays can be classified into such two types as popular and scholarly. Also, this literary form was written for an audience of professionals who preferred to read business, technical, academic, scientific and trade publications. However, for the most part, the periodicals were about morality, emotions and manners. Readers expected essays to be common sense and thought-provoking. Publications were relatively short and mainly characterized as those which provide an opinion inspired by contemporary events. Periodicals were meant to be not “heavy”, especially those which were referred to as popular reading. The majority of topics in the periodicals were supposed to be appropriate for the common talk and general discussion. ORDER NOWSEE PRICES Many essays were written for female readers as a target audience. Periodicals were aimed at middle-class people who were literate enough and could afford to buy the editions regularly. The essays were written in a so-called middle style and high education was not required for reading the majority of the contents. Over time, many periodical writers shaped their styles in order to satisfy the literary taste of the audience. All periodical essays tend to be brief but texts written by a columnist and freelance essayist would slightly differ in length. The former writes his material trying to shape the subject of discussion to fit the requirements of the column. The latter though can take advantage of a more liberating approach by crafting his work the way he wants as long as his text manages to effectively highlight the subject. Periodicals evolved in the 19th century and single essays were almost fully replaced by serial essay publishing. The writings became more eclectic, flexible and brave being at the same time literary and conversational. Do you need the help of a professional essay writer? Contact us today and get quality assistance with writing any type of paper. Getting good grades has never been so easy.

3.a. And=

Humanism was an important philosophy that helped ignite the curiosity and desire for knowledge that led to the beginning of the Renaissance. By the 13th century, people began wanting to learn more about classic Greek and Roman culture, literature, and philosophy. This study began to affect how people saw the world.

One major effect was that people began questioning the systems they were living in. Humanists believed people should be educated in classical art, literature, and science. They also believed that God gave humanity great potential and that humans should make the most of it rather than blindly following a religious plan.

Humanism spread from the 14th through the 16th centuries inspiring the work of many important artists, scientists, and philosophers.

One of the founders of Humanist philosophy in the Renaissance was Francesco Petrarch. Through his writings and poetry, he encouraged people to take interest in nature and value human qualities such as logic and reason.

Giovanni Boccaccio was another humanist writer and philosopher whose work Genealogy of the Pagan Gods, helped guide renaissance thinkers to learn about the ancient Greek classics.

Humanist aspects of these writers influenced later works such as Miguel de Cervantes’ novel Don Quixote which used satire to criticize aspects of the church, and Niccolò Machiavelli’s The Prince which forced people to question how states were governed.

Humanists celebrated the individual and this was also evident in the artistic techniques of Renaissance painters. The sculptor Donatello used perspective and natural human postures and stances in his St. Mark statue and bronze sculpture The Feast of Herod.

The realistic portrayal of humans and use of depth and perspective is prominent in works such as The Wedding of the Virgin and Saint Catherine of Alexandria by Raphael, as well as in The Last Supper and The Mona Lisa painted by Leonardo Da Vinci.

Michelangelo’s works such as The Pieta and The Reaction of Adam show human emotions and have realistic features, a common theme in renaissance humanist art.

Humanism drew its roots from Greek and Roman mythology, and Botticelli included these in his works The Birth of Venus and Venus and Mars, depicting Venus with realistic human features.

Jan Van Eyck’s work depicts renaissance humanism in Northern Europe. Examples of his art such as The Arnolfini Portrait and the Madonna of Chancellor Rolin reflect humanism's intricacy with symbolism and detailed textures and lighting.

B.ans= Christianity

Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth. It is the world's largest and most widespread religion with roughly 2.4 billion followers representing one-third of the global population. Its adherents, known as Christians, are estimated to make up a majority of the population in 157 countries and territories, and believe that Jesus is the Son of God, whose coming as the Messiah was prophesied in the Hebrew Bible (called the Old Testament in Christianity) and chronicled in the New Testament.Christianity began as a Second Temple Judaic sect in the 1st century Hellenistic Judaism in the Roman province of Judea. Jesus' apostles and their followers spread around the Levant, Europe, Anatolia, Mesopotamia, the South Caucasus, Ancient Carthage, Egypt, and Ethiopia, despite significant initial 

3. a. Ans - The persecution. It soon attracted gentile God-fearers, which led to a departure from Jewish customs, and, after the Fall of Jerusalem, AD 70 which ended the Temple-based Judaism, Christianity slowly separated from Judaism. Christianity remains culturally diverse in its Western and Eastern branches, as well as in its doctrines concerning justification and the nature of salvation, ecclesiology, ordination, and Christology. The creeds of various Christian denominations generally hold in common Jesus as the Son of God—the Logos incarnated—who ministered, suffered, and died on a cross, but rose from the dead for the salvation of mankind; and referred to as the gospel, meaning the "good news". Describing Jesus' life and teachings are the four canonical gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John, with the Old Testament as the gospel's respected background. Emperor Constantine the Great decriminalized Christianity in the Roman Empire by the Edict of Milan (313), later convening the Council of Nicaea (325) where Early Christianity was consolidated into what would become the State church of the Roman Empire (380). The early history of Christianity's united church before major schisms is sometimes referred to as the "Great Church" (though divergent sects existed at the same time, including Gnostics, Marcionites, and Jewish Christians). The Church of the East split after the Council of Ephesus (431) and Oriental Orthodoxy split after the Council of Chalcedon (451) over differences in Christology, while the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Catholic Church separated in the East–West Schism (1054), mostly over the authority of the bishop of Rome. Protestantism split in numerous denominations from the Catholic Church in the Reformation era (16th century) over theological and ecclesiological disputes, most predominantly on the issue of justification and the primacy of the bishop of Rome. Christianity played a prominent role in the development of Western civilization, particularly in Europe from late antiquity and the Middle Ages. Following the Age of Discovery (15th–17th century), Christianity was spread into the Americas, Oceania, sub-Saharan Africa, and the rest of the world via missionary work and European colonialism especially during the period of new imperialism.The four largest branches of Christianity are the Catholic Church (1.3 billion), Protestantism (800 million), the Eastern Orthodox Church (220 million), and the Oriental Orthodox churches (60 million), though thousands of smaller church communities exist despite efforts toward unity (ecumenism). Despite a decline in adherence in the West, Christianity remains the dominant religion in the region, with about 70% of that population identifying as Christian. Christianity is growing in Africa and Asia, the world's most populous continents. Christians remain greatly persecuted in many regions of the world, particularly in the Middle East, North Africa, East Asia, and South Asia.

        The history of Christianity concerns the Christian religion, Christian countries, and the Christianswith their various denominations, from the 1st century to the present. Christianity originated with the ministry of Jesus, a Jewish teacher and healer who proclaimed the imminent Kingdom of Godand was crucified c. AD 30–33 in Jerusalem in the Roman province of Judea.^[1] His followers believe that, according to the Gospels, he was the Son of God and that he died for the forgiveness of sins and was raised from the dead and exalted by God, and will return soon at the inception of God's kingdom.^[1]

C.Ans = Chaucer was the first English poet who gave full expression to the new hopes and aspirations of the people of his time. He was a realist who found fitting subjects for his poetry not in gods and heroes of a Golden age but in life that unfolded before his eyes.
Joffrey Chaucer has been called the father of english poetry, he was the first English poet who wrote in a style of language which is readily recognisable today. Chaucer is undoubtedly the founder of English literature and language. The Anglo Saxon literature does not express the the varied genius of english people; it breaths the air of tomb. Even Metrical romance written before chaucer are dull and monotonous and do not have the the vitality and variety which characters the work of Chaucer.
         Chaucer has been acclaimed is the first realist, find humourist, fast narrative artist, fast great metrical artist, and representative of mediaeval poet in english literature. Further he has been created not only the fatherhood of english poetry but he has also been hailed as the father of English drama before the drama was born and father of English novel before the novel was born.
          Chaucer is the father of english language before him there was as yet no standard form of the new tongue to take the place. English language was divided into northern, southern, midland dialects. Chaucer chose his medium medium the east midland dialect the speech of the capital and it was on account of his influence east midland dialect attain the dignity of national language. Thus chaucer is the first national english poet.

      He played a part as the creator of English versification, here octosyllabic lines already in use he had to borrow or manufacture his tool. From French he imported the decasyllabic lines which was become the heroic verses. In The Canterbury Tales Chaucer used lines of 10 syllables with five accents. The rime royal arranged in seven rhyme stanzas is found in its perfect form in Troilus. The eight syllabic line with 4 accents rhyming with couplet are found in "The Book of the Duchess". In short, Chaucer used all the prosodic systems of English poetry.

      Chaucer is the first to show the poetic possibilities of the language. In sweetness, sureness and easy of style he recall all the greatest disciple Spencer. He was the master romancer; he gave a new life to allegory.

      Chaucer showed his skill in the the portrayal of characters. He was indeed the predecessor of Shakespeare. He presented characters and human senses impartially in a way that we can trust. The character of "pandarus" that easy going talkative personality in "Troilus Testifies" it's shown the Chaucer's power of character painting.

      Not only did he give English poetry a new dress but also a new body and a new soul. His major contribution to the content of poetry is in his strick adherence to realism. His "Canterbury Tales" embodies a new effort in the the history of English literature as it strictly deal with the real man, manners and life which before Chaucer was lacking in poetry. He realised to adopt Pope's famous couplet.

"Known then and they self presume not dreams to to scan The proper study of mankind is man."

      Chaucer's tone as a poet is wonderfully instance with geniality, tolerance, humour and freshness which are absent from that of his contemporaries

 wits include Christopher Marlowe, Robert Greene, and Thomas Nashe (all graduates of Cambridge), as well as Thomas Lodge and George Peele (both of Oxford). Another of the wits, though not university-trained, was Thomas Kyd.
       The University Wits fondness of heroic themes, usually tragic in nature, handling of violent incidents and emotions, heroic themes of heroic treatment, greatness, splendid descriptions, strong and sounding lines and variety are some of the main aspects where these playwrights or University Wits focused on

b. Ans :- Geoffrey Chaucer is considered one of the first great English poets. He is the author of such works as The Parlement of Foules, Troilus and Criseyde, and The Canterbury Tales. Humorous and profound, his writings show him to be an acute observer of his time with a deft command of many literary genres.
            Chaucer. no doubt ,belonged to the medieval world,but he is the earliest of his great moderns,  and in comparison with the literature of his own time and that which succeeded him,the advance made by him his own time and that which succeeded him , The advance made by him stupendous making allowances for his old fashioned language , Dryden judges and praises Chaucer (in his Preface to the Fables) as a modern writer, and  no modern author has received higher compliments from him."The Chaucerian literary world is not antique but modern, with an absolutely modern environment,  and his genius puts fresh and formative spirits into old things and turns gross into gold", Albert is quiet right in his observance, "Chaucer is , indeed, a genius ; he stands along , and for nearly two hundred years none dare claim equality with him."

c.Ans :- Historians often point out that in the First British Empire (before the 1780s) there was no single imperial vision, but rather a multiplicity of private operations led by different groups of English businessmen or religious groups. Although protected by the Royal Navy, they were not funded or planned by the government.
          When did the British Empire begin? The first tentative steps toward the establishment of the British Empire began with overseas settlements in the 16th century. Great Britain's maritime expansion accelerated in the 17th century and resulted in the establishment of settlements in North America and the West Indies.
            The British Empire was a cultural interface, its colonial structures forming the juncture between expanding Western culture in all its forms and an array of different indigenous cultures. The differences were immense, the impact of colonial culture varied, though usually, in one way or another, profound.

d. Ans:-  In 1600 Britain founded the East India Company. As the East India Company expanded, its political control increased. The Company introduced raw materials such as tea, jute and rubber to the UK, which were essential to Britain's development as an economic powerhouse.
India was forced to supply raw materials for triggering industrial revolution with greater rapidity in England. India was then forcibly transformed from being a country of combined agricultures and manufactures into an agricultural colony of British manufacturing capitalism      

e. Ans :-          

4.
B. C. Ans = the Renaissance brought about some positive changes for Europe, the geographical exploration that flourished during this time led to devastation for the people of the Western Hemisphere as European conquest and colonization brought plaguesand slavery to the Indigenous people living there. In Africa, it also brought about the birth of the trans-Atlantic slave trade that saw Black people shipped from Africa to the Western Hemisphere to work as slaves on European colonies. 

"Renaissance" comes from the French word for "rebirth." According to the City University of New York at Brooklyn, intense interest in and learning about classical antiquity was "reborn" after the Middle Ages, in which classical philosophy was largely ignored or forgotten. Renaissance thinkers considered the Middle Ages to have been a period of cultural decline. They sought to revitalize their culture through re-emphasizing classical texts and philosophies. They expanded and interpreted them, creating their own style of art, philosophy and scientific inquiry. Some major developments of the Renaissance include astronomy, humanist philosophy, the printing press, vernacular language in writing, painting and sculpture technique, world exploration and, in the late Renaissance,

Many historians, including U.K.-based historian and writer Robert Wilde, prefer to think of the Renaissance as primarily an intellectual and cultural movement rather than a historical period. Interpreting the Renaissance as a time period, though convenient for historians, "masks the long roots of the Renaissance," Wilde told Live Science.

During this time, interest in classical antiquity and philosophy grew, with some Renaissance thinkers using it as a way to revitalize their culture. They expanded and interpreted these Classical ideas, creating their own style of art, philosophy and scientific inquiry. Some major developments of the Renaissance include developments in astronomy, humanist philosophy, the printing press, vernacular language in writing, painting and sculpture technique, world exploration and, in the late Renaissance, Shakespeare's works.

Contrary to popular belief, classical texts and knowledge never completely vanished from Europe during the Middle Ages. Charles Homer Haskins wrote in "The Renaissance of the Twelfth Century" (Harvard University Press, 1927) that there were three main periods that saw resurgences in the art and philosophy of antiquity: the Carolingian Renaissance, which occurred during the reign of Charlemagne, the first emperor of the Holy Roman Empire(eighth and ninth centuries), the Ottonian Renaissance, which developed during the reigns of emperors Otto I, Otto II and Otto III (10th century) and the 12th century Renaissance.

D. Ans = number of very important inventions were made in medieval times such as the Spinning Wheel, Stirrups, Astrolabe, Eyeglasses, Compass, Tidal Mills, Gunpowder and Printing Press. A large number of inventions came to be during the medieval period.

3.e. compare and contrast lamb and hazlitt as essayist.

ANS:- Charles Lamb and William Hazlitt were two of the most important essayists of the Romantic period. Both literary greats wrote personal, subjective and often autobiographical memoirs. However, there were also some important differences between their works. Both authors were proficient in the essay format but had different writing styles and perspectives.

             Lamb and Hazlitt gave to English essay the quality of imagination. Addison and Steele's essays are vitalised by wit. These essays are critical and intellectual. The style is prim and precise. There is, however, classical neatness and order in the 18th century style. They seek 'order in beauty'. But romantics strive for liberalism in art. This liberalism is brought about by imaginative rendering of the subject-matter. The essays of Lamb and Hazlitt may be called imaginative excursions. They take us beyond the limits of their subject matter to limitless regions of imagination and thoughts. Their essays are about insignificant subject matters, but they make them significant and magnificent by their intimate style, confidential chatters, pathos and humour and gravity of reflections.

                 Charles Lamb was known for his wit and humor, and his essays often dealt with personal experiences and relationships. He used to write witty and insightful about his life and experience.

            In his essay, "A Dissertation upon Roast Pig,", Lamb recounts how much he loved roast pig. He begins the memory of the roast pig at his grandmother's childhood home. He then delves into the history of the roast pig and its cultural significance. Lamb's essay is as funny as it is thought provoking, providing insight into her unique personality. Her most famous works include include "Essays of Elia," "The Last Essays of Elia," and "Tales from Shakespeare,", which she co-wrote with her sister Mary. In his essay "The Superannuated Man," He reflects on his retirement and the joys and sorrows of his aging;

"Who first invented work, and bound the free

And holyday-rejoicing spirit down

To the ever-haunting importunity

Of business in the green fields, and the town;

To plough, loom, anvil, spade, among rude

Grosses of low people, canopy'd o'er

With dismal fog, or wrapt in lonely snow,

And think, with me, how doth the busy

Rise early, and, ere warm sun-rays

Can make them blink, force-wearied, and

Afar, work, work, work!"

           Here, Lamb uses poetic language to express the drudgery of work and the freedom of retirement. He contrasts "business in the green fields " with "holyday-rejoicing spirit"  and shows that work is a burden to be borne.

          Hazlitt's essays, on the other hand, are more serious and analytical. He often writes about politics, philosophy, and art. His essays are characterized by their intelligence, passion, and wit. William Hazlitt was also known for his passionate and sometimes controversial opinions. His essays often explored political and social issues, and he was a fierce critic of the establishment. Some of his most famous works include "The Spirit of the Age," "Table-Talk," and "Lectures on the English Poets." In his essay "On the Pleasure of Hating," Hazlitt explores the dark side of human nature. in the  essay Hazlitt argues that hatred is a natural and necessary emotion. He goes on to discuss the different types of hatred, and he argues that hatred can be a powerful force for good. Hazlitt's essay is both provocative and thought-provoking, and it provides a glimpse into his own complex and contradictory personality.

               Lamb is the perfector of these personal literary essays. His ‘Superannuated Man’ is a classic example of the imaginative productions of his genius. He is earnest in describing his feelings, but he describes them in his characteristic exaggerations, hyperboles and 'whimwhams'. He speaks about his leisure in an extravagant language-with rhapsodies and imaginative metaphors-"it was like passing out of time into eternity." He wanted some steward or judicious bailiff to manage his estates in time. If he had a little son, he would christen him "Nothing-to-do".

         "Dream Children" is filled with retrospective pathos It is highly imaginative in the creation of a dream world where he tells his imaginary children stories about his childhood. It has nothing of the exaggerations and rhapsodies of "The Superannuated Man", but it is sweet and genial in its gentle pathos and wistfulness. It is romantic in the pictures of the old world, garden and in the delineation of children, Mrs. Field and John. It has the retrospective beauty of 'what might have been'. He has the romantic passion for sensuous luxuriance, the same poetic imagination by which the observed and the observer are merged and identified. Its style is marked by slow cadences of rhythmic prose.

            Hazlitt lacks the serenity and charm of Lamb. He does not have the wit, humour, pathos, fun and hyperboles and exaggerations of Lamb's style. Lamb surprises by a 'fine excess'. Lamb's style is complex by the mixture of many elements. He hops, steps and jumps. Hazlitt is in direct line from Dryden and Addison. Lamb is an individual apart. Hazlitt writes the prose of his own day as well as he can; Lamb plays many pranks. Hazlitt's essays are characterised by lucidity and clarity.

            Hazlitt's essay, “On a Sun-dial”  is also an imaginative excursion, He goes beyond the limit of the subject-the sun-dial and reflects on time. He thinks of the hour-glass, other watches and clocks, He then passes on to comments on the national character of the French people.

         As he reflected on time, Hazlitt's mind goes back to the past, to the days of the Norman conquerors. The bells in Holland which sound not only in hours but also in the quarters seem a nuisance to him. Time in Holland is like an old man who imitates the gestures of youth in vain. Hazlitt's mind then turns to the natural sense of the progress of time in folk who do not use artificial reckoners. In the country he does not care for time. He loves to enjoy his hours in a mood of imaginative idleness.

          Thus Hazlitt like Lamb roams about freely as his mind leads him. His essay is discursive and rambling. The style is imaginative. It is rich with poetic images. He revives a romantic image of the Middle ages with its segregated monks in their "indolent, elegant and thoughtful" moods. He also brings to life the striving Norman conquerors and villagers skilled in the art of bows and arrows in vivid and precise images. Hazlitt's imagination is filled with visions

          vivid and precise images. Hazlitt's imagination is filled with visions of the ancient English villages situated in the midst of forest glades. The imaginative pictures of young Rousseau sitting with his father late at night and Hazlitt lying on Salisbury plain dreaming are alive.

          Like Lamb, Hazlitt's essay is full of quotations. He quotes freely from Shakespeare, Milton and eighteenth century authors. Latin and French quotations add to the imaginative quality of the essay. He misquotes like Lamb from King John (Shakespeare)-"with its brazen throat...sound one unto the drowsy ear of night." Anecdotes of Rousseau, Robin hood and his father enrich the style by way of diversity of interests. What characterizes Hazlitt's essay is the 'gusto' with which he makes his reflections on time. Illustrations, quotations and anecdotes come naturally and spontaneously to him. The essay is a good example of learning and vivacity, art and spontaneity. But unlike Lamb's essays Hazlitt's essay has a purity and clarity of diction and lucidity of expressions. It is free from archaisms and Latinised diction and the seventeenth century grandiloquence which sometimes characterize the essays of Lamb. But Lamb has a variety of styles. He can be fanciful, paradoxical, whimsical, reflective and funny as his bent of mind directs him. Hazlitt does not have this   rich diversity.

          In conclusion, Lamb and Hazlitt were two of the most important essayists of the Romantic period. Both men wrote essays that were personal, subjective, and often autobiographical. However, there were also some important differences between their work. Lamb's essays are characterized by their wit, humor, and sense of pathos, while Hazlitt's essays are more serious and analytical. Both men's essays are still read and enjoyed today, and they continue to influence writers and thinkers around the world.

           Here are some more quotes from Lamb and Hazlitt's essays that illustrate the differences between their writing styles:

         "I have a great notion of the virtue of roast pig. It is a dish I have ever loved." - Charles Lamb, "A Dissertation upon Roast Pig"

        "Hatred is a passion as natural to the human breast as love. It is an instinct of self-preservation." - William Hazlitt, "On the Pleasure of Hating"

         Lamb's quote is a humorous and light-hearted observation about his love of roast pig. Hazlitt's quote, on the other hand, is a serious and analytical discussion of the nature of hatred. These two quotes provide a glimpse into the different ways that Lamb and Hazlitt approached the art of the essay.

   Comment on Charles Lamb’s prose styles with reference with  His Essay of Elia

        Charles Lamb occupies a unique place in the history of the English prose by virtue of his unique style. Though critics have more or less been unanimous in labelling Lamb's style as 'imitative' of the Elizabethan prose writer like Browne, Burton, Fuller, it is not his imitativeness that strikes the modern readers, but his ability to stamp upon the old Elizabethan style with his mark of personality that lends a pleasing quietness to his style with versatility and insight, with humour and spontaneity. No doubt, there are many points in which Lamb imitates the Elizabethan for example, in his use of words in the obsolete or writer Elizabethan senses, his fondness for alliteration, his use of compound words, his formation of adjectives from the proper names, his frequent use of Latinism. However, he is unique by the virtue of his telling stories bearing his personality as forever sweet memories, the quality as one of "Ella's" distinctive hallmarks, along with his fondness for the obscure and other idiosyncrasies.

         For instance, when Lamb calls in Old China and Old China cup 'Speciosa Miraculta' we get a taste of his Latinism. His fondness for alliteration is evident in such sentences as "When Dorimant ---- assists the apple woman" or in his reference to Susan Winstanley overhearing Joseph Paice ----  "In rather rough language rating a young woman ---- or in his reference to a 'flowery mid' painted on the "other side of the China cup existing on the "other side of the same strange stream" which a woman was crossing in her little fairy boat. Lamb's use of words in the obsolete or Elizabethan senses is evident in his use of word "obsequiousness" in the Elizabethan sense of "respectful devotion" while today the word means a show of servility. The early 17th century prose writers are noted for the profuse use of metaphors. Such metaphoric style of language is also evident in Modern Gallantry. One such example would suffice: "The roses that had long laded thence still bloomed for him in those withered yellow cheeks".

             As a result these of features Lamb write in a language which like that of Spenser could never be spoken at anytime. This quietness, which is a kind of mannerism, but not an affectation, marks his language. For instance, Lamb writes: "In co

 

4.b. Evaluate the contribution of matthew arnold or thomas Carlyle as a social critic of the victorian age.

Ans :- Matthew Arnold (b. 1822–d. 1888) is one of the most influential writers of the Victorian age. After receiving a Classics degree from Oxford and spending a brief spell in Paris, Arnold spent most of his life working as a schools inspector. He was elected to the Oxford Professorship of Poetry in 1857. Arnold was an author of both poetry and criticism. His verse includes: The Strayed Reveller and Other Poems (1847), Empedocles on Etna, and Other Poems (1852), and New Poems (1867), as well as the classical verse tragedy Merope (1858). Together with Tennyson and Browning, Arnold has been held by critics as one of the representative poets of his age because of his poetry’s difficult negotiations of the legacy of Romanticism and its clear expression of the Victorian zeitgeist, evident, for instance, in the analysis of religious doubt contained in one of his most famous poems, “Dover Beach.” His prolific prose canon includes cornerstones of 19th-century intellectual and critical history such as On Translating Homer (1861), Essays in Criticism (1865) and Culture and Anarchy (1869). The influence of Arnold’s literary, social, and religious criticism has been immense. His work appears so representative of the Victorian age because of its constant effort to understand and scrutinize modernity. Like many other Victorian authors, however, Arnold suffered a period of neglect and hostility in the early 20th century; but his works are now once again recognized as classics and attract a great deal of critical attention both from literary scholars and cultural historians.

C. Discuss the silent features of modern history of india

Ans:- In this period, the most important historical incidents are: the decline of the Mughal empire, British conquest of India, the revolt of the 1857 social reformation movement, two world wars and their socioeconomic effects, famines, the rise of nationalism, the Indian freedom movement, partition, the rise of leftist.